Final Examination Paper
Cross Cultural and Inter Cultural Communication
Communication Studies, Gadjah Mada University
In this paper, I want to talk about a
phenomenon in Indonesia related to cultural diversity, which means also related
to prejudice, stereotypes, and racism. I don’t want to write about various
culture and ethnics in Indonesia, but just Bali. So, first of all I want to
give some insight about cultural diversity, stereotypes and prejudice itself.
Cultural diversity, or multiculturalism, is based on the idea
that cultural identities should not be discarded or ignored, but rather
maintained and valued().
Multiculturalism being the subject of such attention about this topic. But
another opinion said that the many separate societies that emerged around the globe
differed markedly from each other, and many of these differences persist to
this day creating cultural differences, that exist between people, such as
language, dress and traditions, ways societies organize themselves, in their
shared conception of communication. So,
stereotype and prejudice are the point in this opinion.
If we talk about cultural diversity,
unconciously we’ll shaped our mind that people are classified into several
groups. And the best way to classify them is to look at the country of residence.
We usually generalize people according to the country where he lived and we
think that people in the same country relatively have a same characteristics.
Tierney (2010: 18) said that there’s nothing ‘natural’ about such
nation-states. In most countries, national homogenity had to be actively
constructed by the state through a range of ‘nation-building’ policies that
encouraged the preferred national identity while suppressing any alternative
identities. Public policies were used to promote and consolidate a common
national language, national history and mythology, national heroes, national
symbols, a national literature, a national education system, a national media,
military, religion, and so on.
However, this nation-state model has
increasingly been chalenged and contested by all sort of groups. There are many
groups within the territory of the state that have their own language, history,
culture, heroes, and symbols. As a result, various groups, particularly
indigenous people and other kind of nation group, have contested this attempt
to construct states form of homogeneous nation-building, and advocated instead
for a more multicultural model of the state.
In other opinion, each person is
representative of a mixture of “cultures and experiences”. So they can’t be generalized into a
particular group because each individual in the group does have some
similarities, but also have individual differences, both cultural and personal
experiences. Person's membership in a group makes the person has two points of view,
the view as part of a group (inner group), and the views of other groups (outer
group). Then an individual's membership in a group is to make himself be
generalized (by someone outside the group) that he is a representation of the
group (pars prototo or totem proparte).
This is the beginning of a process of
prejudice and stereotyping. Someone became the subject of negative reaction
based only on your membership in a group. Very little can be
determined about a person based on their appearance. Stereotypes are opinions
based on their appearance.
So, what exactly ‘diversity’ is? Diversity refers to
all the ways that individuals are unique and differ from one another. Diversity Involves:
·
Recognizing
our unique differences
·
Attracting
people of all backgrounds
·
Recognizing
how attitudes affect us all
·
Creating
an environment where all can succeed
·
Acting to
promote diversity
There are also some elements of diversity :
·
Age
·
Gender
·
Ethnicity
·
Race
·
Physical Ability
·
Sexual Orientation
·
Physical Characteristics
·
Income
·
Education
·
Marital Status
·
Religious Beliefs
·
Geographic Location
·
Parental Status
·
Personality Type
Dimensions of Diversity :
- Primary dimensions are elements we have some power to change. People
are less sensitive about secondary dimensions. We also have the choice of
whether to disclose this information or not; we
can conceal these characteristics. Primary dimensions (Loden and Rosener, 1991)
consisst of :
·
Religious beliefs
·
Education
·
Work background
·
Income
·
Geographic location
·
Marital status
·
Parental Status
- Secondary dimensions
are aspects of ourselves that we cannot change. They are things people know about us
before we even open our mouths, because they are physically visible
(except sexual orientation). When
people feel they are being stereotyped based on primary dimension, they
can be very sensitive about it. Secondary dimensions
(Loden and Rosener, 1991) consisst of :
·
Sexual orientation
·
Race
·
Gender
·
Ethnicity
·
Age
·
Physical qualities
After we understand about this topic, then
I’ll told you about stereotypes, prejudice and racism. As we’ve already
mentioned above, an individual's membership in a group is to make himself be
generalized (by someone outside the group) that he is a representation of the
group. This is the beginning of a process of prejudice and stereotyping.
Someone became the subject of negative reaction based only on your membership
in a group. Very little can be determined about a person based on their appearance.
Stereotypes are opinions based on their appearance.
Stereotypes and Prejudice actually included in
psychology studies. But we have to realize that stereotype and prejudice is
also being a problem in communication. Prejudice and stereotypes usually being
a package with discriminations, or maybe racism.
Jandt (2004) define stereotype as the broader
term commonly used to refer to negative or positive judgements made about
individuals based on any observable or believed group membership. In other
definitions, Lippmann (1992) said that stereotype refer to the typical picture
that comes to mind when thinking about a particular social group. Stereotypes
not only reflect beliefs about the traits characterizing typical group members
but also contain information about other qualities such as social roles, the
degree to which member of the group share specific qualities, and influence
emotional reactions to group member.
Widely definitons of this, prejudice is a
negative attitude toward a particular social group and its member. Allport
(Stangor, 2000) assumes that prejudice is not irrational, because prejudice is
thinking ill of others without sufficient warrant and based on absence of fact.
Dovidio and friends (2010) also describe about prejudice. They suggest that
prejudice is an individual level attitude (whether subjectively positive or
negative) toward groups and their members that creates or maintains
hierarchical status relations between groups.
Whereas
stereotypes can be positive or negative, prejudice refers to the irrational
dislike, suspicion, or hatred of a particular group, race, religion, or sexual
orientation (Rothenberg, 1992). Prejudice is seen to have three components :
cognitive, affective and behavioral (Dovidio, 2010). The first of these is
equivalent to what we will define as stereotype. The second is a purer
affective or evaluative response to the group, void of any particular semantic
content. And the third consist of behaviors and behavioral tendencies
discriminate against, or in favor of a group.
We may try to distinguish certain degrees of
negative actions in prejudice:
- Antilocution. Most people who have
prejudices talk about them, with like-minded friends, occasionally with
strangers, they may express their antagonism freely. But many people never
go beyond this mild degree of anti-pathetic action.
- Avoidance. If the prejudice is mire
intense, it leads the individual to avoid members of dislikes group, even
perhaps at the cost of considerable inconvenience.
- Discrimination. Here the prejudiced
person make detrimental distinctions of an active sort
Then I’ll explain a phenomenon about
stereotype and prejudice in Indonesia. I think many people agree that Indonesia
is a country based culture. In many media, Indonesia was known as goodness,
polite and friendly country. It represented from our culture, custom, language,
people’s gesture to each other and traditional ceremony. So, many people come
to Indonesia, having a holiday and enjoying Indonesian tourism objects. But, do
you ever think that progress of Indonesia tourism also bring some bad effects? Especially
changing cultural values and indigenous of Indonesia itself.
Culture, art and objects of tourism in
Indonesia that can’t be found anywhere else being a magnet for foreign
tourists. So, these two things that can’t be separated. Arts and culture in
Indonesia attract foreign tourists, and the interest of foreign tourists
appreciate the local culture and indirectly support our culture. Indonesia's
tourism will provide a lot of positive impact on the lives of our own society.
Revenue from the tourism sector is large
enough. Data from Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS), the number of foreign tourists
who traveling in Indonesia in 2004 grew by 19.1% compared to 2003. While
foreign exchange earnings reached U.S. $ 4.798 billion, an increase of 18.8% of
revenue in 2003 amounted to U.S. $ 4.037 billion. Based on data from WTO,
Indonesia is a country with eighth place which is visited by 5.064 million with
a foreign exchange gain USD. 5.7 billion (in 2000).
Indonesia has a lot of tourism objects.
Furthermore, Indonesia offer you various types of tour. There is a history tour
contained in almost every cities in Indonesia. Then there are shopping and
metropolitan cities. Consider that Indonesia is a multicultural country and has
many tribes and races scattered across Indonesia, so Indonesia will serve you
its cultural tour. And because Indonesia is a tropical country, of course there
are mountains, caves, beaches and very beautiful submarine tours.
Indonesia has some of the city that became a
favorite destination of foreign tourists. One of most favorite place for
foreign tourists is Bali island, which is often seen as a heaven for its
beauty. Bali is also being favorite destination by Chinese tourists poll “Beijing
People's Broadcasting Station”, since 25 April 2011, which determines 10
favorite places from 68 nominations there. Beside Bali known for its beautiful
beaches, Bali island also has a high cultural value.
However, as the development of tourism in the
area, the current value of the Balinese culture has changed from being
characterized by calm and understated being cultural metropolis. It can be
determined by its nightlife and modern music that no longer reflect the
traditional art and beauty of Bali island. And furthermore, the additional
revenues in tourism not only from foreign tourists visiting to the tourist
spots, but also from the nightlife and sex tourism which follow the daily life
of the tourist. According to the U.S. Department of Justice, Criminal Division
Child Exploitation and Obscenity Section (CEOS), in 1998, the International
Labour Organization reported its calculations that 2-14% of the gross domestic
product of Indonesia, Malaysia, the Phillipines, and Thailand derives from sex
tourism. This is also confirmed by ECPAT notes. Locations in Indonesia, which
is famous as the location of sex tourism is Bali, Batam, the northern part of
the island of Bintan, and Lombok. Each year, there are about 3.000 tourists
from Singapore and Malaysia came to Batam to do sex tourism.
On the island of Bali itself, sex tourism is
very famous. When I visited Bali and walk around Kuta Beach, there are many
bars and pub. Entering the Legian area, on either side of the road there are
many cafes and a lot of young women are prostituting themselves to foreign
tourists. Not only women are selling themselves, in Bali, mens also become
prostitutes. Generally they called ‘gigolo’, or Kuta Boys. Most of them that
can "serve" bules usually operating in Kuta beach. Sad to see this,
because actually it’s not our trully culture.
The film "Cowboys in Paradise"
directed by Singaporean man of Indian descent, Amit Virmani told about a gigolo
who is widely available in Kuta Beach, Bali. The movie lasted about 10 minutes
became a new controversy. He made this film based on his experience met a
Balinesse boy who has a goal life as a gigolo. “Kuta Boys” are very famous for
foreign tourists. Amit Virmani begin his “research” about this phenomenon since
2007. He needs about 2 years to collect the data and interview some souces,
from Kuta Boys, and tourist also. Then, in 2010 this film began to be
published.
There
are some statement reported by CBS documentaries :
“Each
year, thousands of women travel to Bali in search of paradise. And many find it
in the arms of Kuta Cowboys, the bronzed beach ambassadors who've made the
island one of the world's leading destinations for female sex tourists. COWBOYS
IN PARADISE gets between the sheets of Bali's 'holiday romance' trade
to reveal some of the island's most closely-guarded secrets. What separates a
Cowboy from garden-variety gigolos? How do women compensate him? Why are time
management skills crucial to his success? And how does his family feel about
his colourful ways?”
In fact, a lot of foreign tourists, especially
women who recognize that gigolo Kuta beach into a tourist attraction in Bali.
They can get a ‘holiday romance’ in Bali, beside enjoying the beautiful beaches
also. However, the people of Bali (Kuta Boys) who led the film "Cowboys in
Paradise" claim to feel cheated by the director Amit Virmani and intends
to sue the film he made.
The police conducted a raid against a lot of
gigolo in Kuta Beach related to the film. As reported by Globalpost.com, “The recent arrests, on the island of Bali,
coincided with the release of a documentary on the resort's
"gigolos." The film, "Cowboys in Paradise" — which contains
candid interviews with local men and the foreign women who fall for them — had
gone viral on the internet but has since been removed from the official
website by its makers.” ([2])
Although, many of us don’t really know what government did to handle this case.
After the incident, many media highlighting
about sex tourism in Indonesia, espescially Bali. Media is not only about news,
but also television, advertising, movies, new media (include Web, Blog,
Facebook, Youtube and another social media), etc. Furthermore, we can guess the
result as an impact from that news. It
actually doesn’t affect the number of tourists visiting this country or foreign from tourism sector. However, as a
nation with noble of culture and values, of course it’s very threaten the
image of Indonesia. Indonesia as a sex tourism country become a new judgement
by the tourist.
Since Bali become an icon of Indonesia, this
course will change the face of Indonesia in the view of the world. As I wrote
at the beginning, an individual's membership in a group can make themself be
generalized (by someone outside the group) that they’re a representation of the
group.
The judgements come not only from the
international tourist, domestic tourist also have some judgements about Bali.
Bali considered as a little Australian. Life in there is no longer calm, and
not reflect the culture of a noble nation. Bali has been filled with its pubs
and its nightlife. But actually not all areas in Bali as it is. Only in a few
areas such as Kuta, Legian, and other areas.
Not all of the tourism areas have a same
personality. In the area of Bali itself, in some areas, things about sex is
still taboo. Marriage laws respected and upheld. Such cases can arise because societies
and areas visited by travelers experiencing acculturation. However, people
should be ready to face the cultural differentiation brought by the tourists.
So, we can minimize the cultural change.
This phenomenon is one example, how the
cultural shift can occur through the tourism sector. It also reflects the
cultural diversity from other countries can change the another culture. This
phenomenon also explain about how media shape public perceptions about the
phenomenon of prejudice. This phenomenon should be solved wisely. And never
become into discrimination and racism which is the effect of a prejudice.
References :
Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Departemen Luar Negeri. 1983. Diplomasi
Kebudayaan. Jakarta.
Dovidio, John. F. et al. 2010. The SAGE Handbook of Prejudice; Stereotyping
and Discrimination. London : SAGE Publications.
F. E. Jandt, “Stereotypes and
Prejudice as Barriers,”. in An
Introduction to Intercultural Communication. Identities in a Global Community,
F. E. Jandt. Thousand Oaks, London, New Delhi: Sage Publications, 2004, pp. 93
– 119.
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www.globalpost.com/dispatch/general/100421/sex-tourism-jamaica-prostitution
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globalpost.com/dispatch/general/100421/sex-tourism-jamaica-prostitution
